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2009年2月9日

保羅.克魯曼論奧巴馬的救經濟方案

編按:- 保羅.克魯曼(Paul Krugman,大陸譯名:克魯格曼),2008年諾貝爾經濟學獎得主,普林斯頓大學經濟系教授,《紐約時報》專欄作家,是新凱恩斯主義經濟學派和美國自由主義左派的代表人物。他在紐約時報的專欄題名為「一個自由派的良知」;一本同名的譯文集在不久前在中國大陸刊行。

輯在下面的六篇文章便是他最近刊登在專欄上的文章,由台灣中國時報譯出。
(1)
歐巴馬救經濟的手筆還不夠大
保羅.克魯曼
王嘉源 摘譯
台灣 中國時報
2009年1月10日

美國總統當選人歐巴馬9日宣稱:「我不認改弦更張的時機已太晚,但假如我們不盡快下猛藥,時機稍縱即逝。如果毫無作為,當前經濟衰退可能會持續好幾年。」

歐巴馬說得沒錯。美國正面臨自「經濟大蕭條」以來最險惡的經濟危機,很容易就會陷入長期衰退。然而,歐巴馬開出的處方並未對症下藥。他的經濟振興方案不夠強有力,事實上遠不敷所需。

請記住美國的經濟規模有多龐大,只要需求夠強勁,美國可以在未來兩年生產價值逾三百兆美元的財貨與勞務。不過,隨著消費者支出和企業投資雙雙大跌,美國的經濟產出與銷售之間已出現一大缺口。歐巴馬的經濟方案絕不足以填補這一「產出缺口」。

國會預算局(CBO)本周發表的最新報告指出,若不推動經濟振興方案,到了2010年初,失業率將超過9%,並持續居高不下好多年。歐巴馬本人更曾說,若缺少經濟振興方案,失業率可能飆到兩位數。

國會預算局的報告又說,「未來兩年的經濟產出低於潛能平均達6.9%」。。這是相當於兩兆一千億美元的產出流失。歐巴馬9日則宣稱:「我們的經濟可能比充分產能狀態短少一兆 (1萬億) 美元」。他的說法事實上是低估了。

假設國會預算局的數據並未低估,若要填補逾兩兆美元的缺口,歐巴馬提出規模 7,750億美元的經濟振興方案是不夠的。

的確,財政刺激措施有時會具有「乘數」效益:除了對基礎建設投資的直接效益之外,還有間接效益,亦即所得提升會帶來消費支出增加。一般估計,1美元的公共支出,可以讓國內生產毛額提升約1.50美元。

然而,歐巴馬提出的方案只有約60%涵蓋公共支出。其餘是減稅,而許多經濟學家懷疑這些減稅措施,尤其是對企業減稅,究竟能夠實際提振多少支出。

總之,歐巴馬的方案不可能對隱然成形的產出缺口填補超過一半,到頭來很可能只填補不到三分之一。

為何歐巴馬不試著對經濟振興方案加碼呢?此案被綁手綁腳,是否因為擔心國債飆升?這是政府大規模舉債的風險,而國會預算局的報告預測,今年美國財政赤字會達到一兆兩千億美元。可是,萬一救經濟功虧一簣,代價甚至還會更高。

是否找不到理想的支出項目?歐巴馬提到要著眼於「蓄勢待發」( shovel-ready)的公共投資項目,這些項目馬上就可以推動,並且會在短期間對經濟帶來助益,但其數量畢竟有限。不過,公共支出還有其他種類,特別是健保支出,不僅可以做好事,也對經濟有幫助。

或者,歐巴馬有政治顧忌呢?上個月有媒體報導說,歐巴馬的助理擔心,若經濟振興方案的規模突破兆元大關,可能會有政治敏感性,因此試圖將總金額壓低些。也有分析認為,該方案納入對企業龐大減稅措施,係意圖在國會中爭取共和黨議員的票,儘管這些減稅措施只會增加成本,對經濟幫助不大。

不論原因為何,歐巴馬的方案根本不敷拯救經濟所需。當然啦,有總比沒有要好。然而,如今我們似乎面臨了兩大經濟落差:經濟潛能與可能的表現之間的落差,以及歐巴馬憂心忡忡的談話,與他的經濟方案多少令人失望的落差。

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(2)
花一元建設 比減稅一元有用
楊明暐 摘譯
2009年1月13日

上周,有人要求美國總統當選人歐巴馬對批評其振興計畫無助於經濟的人做出回應。歐巴馬答道,他想聽取「如何有效花錢和有效起動經濟」的意見。

好吧,我來講兩句,長話短說,這個「起動」(jump-start)的比喻,是問題之一。

首先,歐巴馬應揚棄一千五百億美元營業稅減免計畫,這對經濟助益不大。若一併拋棄一千五百億美元薪資稅減免計畫,就更理想了,雖然這是他的競選承諾。

沒浪費在無效減稅方案的錢,可提供陷入困境的美國人更多幫助,如強化失業救濟、醫療補助等。何不提前推動保險補助?這每年可能需要一千億美元以上,對落實全民健保很重要。

不過最主要的是,歐巴馬需要擴大他的計畫。箇中原因,只要看其經濟團隊一份新的報告就能了解。

將任白宮經濟顧問委員會主席的克莉絲汀娜.羅默(Christina Romer)和將任副總統首席經濟顧問的賈爾德.伯恩斯坦(Jared Bernstein)10日發怖對歐巴馬經濟計畫評估報告。他們的報告很合理也很誠實,但也清楚提到計畫遠不足以應付經濟之所需。按其講法,該計畫的成效將在2010年第四季達到最大。沒有這項計畫,該季失業率將達災難性的8.8%。就算有這計畫,失業率仍將達7%,和現在差不多。

報告說,2010年後計畫的效果將迅速消失,然推動全面復甦的工作尚未完成:到2011年最後一季,失業率仍將達6.3%。

經濟預測目前還是不精確的科學,事情可能會比預期的好,但也可能更糟。報告便提到,「某些預報員預期,不採取行動,失業率將達11%。」我同意歐巴馬經濟團隊成員勞倫斯.桑默斯(Lawrence Summers)最近宣稱的,「在這次危機裡,做太少會比做太多更危險。」很不幸,當前的計畫並未反映這項原則。

歐巴馬要如何做更多?那就是在計畫中融入更多公共投資。他若考慮得更長遠,這是有可能的。

報告還提到「花在基礎建設的一美元,對創造就業會比減稅一美元更有效。」然報告認為,「政府投資在短期內能發揮的作用有限。」但為何只能是短期?

歐巴馬的計畫專家專注於能在未來兩年創造大量就業機會的投資方案。但失業率在兩年後仍可能居高不下,這項計畫也應包括較長期的投資方案。

要記住,就算一項2011年才會見到成效的方案,也能在之前的幾年提供可觀的經濟支援。假如歐巴馬拋棄「起動」這種比喻,接受我們需要的是一項多年計畫而不是短暫衝刺,即使近期內,他也能透過政府投資創造更多工作機會。

還有,難道他不應等候證據,證明更大、更長期的計畫有其必要?不應這樣,現在歐巴馬計畫中的投資部分,因缺乏能馬上實施的方案而受到限制。如果他現在就給予許可,許多投資可在2010年末或2011年執行,但若等太久才做決定,機會會溜走。

即使有了歐巴馬計畫,這份報告預測未來三年平均失業率仍達7.3%,足以使美國經濟面臨陷入日本式通貨緊縮的威脅。

所以,我的建議是:拋棄營業稅減免計畫,更重要的是,以多做來避免做太少的危險。至於做更多的方法是,不要再談「起動」,應更廣泛考量政府投資的各種可能性。

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(3)
巫毒經濟救不了僵屍銀行
楊明暐 摘譯
2009年1月20日

老式巫毒經濟學(voodoo economics),亦即信仰減稅魔術,已被文明論述摒棄。如今還相信減稅能刺激生產和投資的,只剩下怪胎、江湖術士和共和黨人。

不過最近新聞顯示,許多有影響力者,包括聯準會官員、銀行監管人員,可能還有歐巴馬新政府成員,已投入一種新的巫毒教:他們相信舉辦金融儀式,能讓死去的銀行繼續運作。

我用個假想的銀行「高譚集團」(Gotham group,Gotham為《蝙蝠俠》中的城市)來解釋。

帳面上,高譚擁有二兆美元資產和1.9兆負債,因此淨值為一千億美元。但其資產有相當部分,如四千億美元,是房貸抵押債券和其它有毒廢料。銀行若出售它們,所得不超過二千億美元。

因此高譚是仍在運作、實際上已破產的僵屍銀行,它的股票不全然一文不值,它仍擁有二百億美元市值,但那完全建立在會得到政府救援的希望上。

政府為什麼要救?因為它在金融體系內扮演重要角色。當初雷曼破產,金融市場為之戰慄,有數周時間全球經濟瀕臨崩潰。由於我們不願舊事重演,高譚必須維持運作。但怎樣才能辦到?政府可以奉送高譚數千億美元,使它再度具備償債能力。這對高譚的股東當然是份大禮,也鼓勵銀行繼續從事脫軌的冒險。高譚股價現在能得到支撐,正是因為政府可能贈送這份大禮。

較好的辦法是,政府仿效80年代末對付僵屍儲貸機構的做法:沒收死掉的銀行,將股東掃地出門,然後將其不良資產移交給清債信託公司(RTC),替銀行償還足夠債務,恢復其償債能力,然後將整頓好的銀行賣給新老闆。

但現在有流言宣稱,決策者不願採行上述二法,而傾向妥協方式:將有毒廢料從私營銀行的資產負債表,轉移到類似清債信託公司的公營「壞銀行」,或叫「統合銀行」(aggregator bank),卻不先把私營銀行沒收。

聯邦存款保險公司(FDIC)董事長貝爾女士最近對此作法描述道:「統合銀行將以『合理的價格』收購那些資產。」但「合理的價格」是什麼?

高譚集團之所以破產,是因帳面上四千億美元有毒廢料事實上只值二千億美元。政府想藉購買有毒廢料使高譚得以恢復償債能力,唯一辦法是用比私人買家高得多的價錢收購。

或許私人買家不願以確實的價格購買有毒廢料。貝爾女士說:「這類資產有些我們尚未真正取得任何合理價格。」但政府應否宣稱它比市場更了解那些資產的價格?還有,付了「合理價格」,就能使高譚恢復償債能力?

我懷疑決策者可能在不知情下,助長掛羊頭賣狗肉的行為:這項政策看似在清理儲貸機構,名義上以「合理價格」收購有毒資產,實際上是用納稅人的錢送大禮給銀行股東。

為什麼如此拐彎抹角?答案似乎是華府仍畏懼「國有化」這個名詞。其實高譚及其姐妹機構已歸國家照料,全靠納稅人支撐,但沒人願承認並執行顯而易見的解決方案,即政府暫時直接接管。新巫毒教也因而受到歡迎,該教宣稱,精心安排的金融儀式能讓銀行起死回生。

很不幸,退回迷信的代價可能非常高昂。我希望我的見解錯誤,但恐怕納稅人又要吃大虧了,而我們得到的是又一個行不通的金融救援計畫。

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(4)
帶美走出經濟泥淖 歐巴馬要加把勁
王嘉源 摘譯
2009年1月24日

像所有關注財經新聞的人,我處於高度經濟焦慮的狀態。像所有懷有善意的人,我原先期盼歐巴馬總統廿日的就職演說會帶給我們一些寬慰。可是結果卻非如此。我聽過演說後,反而對新政府的經濟政策方向更沒有信心。

當然,就職演說的內容並無任何大錯,雖然對那些仍盼望歐巴馬推動全民健保的人而言,歐巴馬只談到健保的成本龐大,未免令人失望。我也希望這篇演講稿的捉刀者能想出更激勵人心的話,而不只是呼籲「重塑負責任的文化」。

不過,我對這席就職演說真正挑剔的地方在於,談到經濟問題,它只是老生常談。面對一場前所未見的經濟危機,歐巴馬做了華府政治人物都會做的事:他以抽象措詞大談須做困難抉擇,對特殊利益團體說不。

然而,這麼說並不夠,甚至有不對之處。

歐巴馬在演說中把當前經濟危機部分歸咎於「我們的集體失敗,未能做困難抉擇,讓國家準備好迎接新時代」,但我根本不了解他的意思。歸根結底,這場危機是金融業如脫韁野馬般失控造成,才不是因 美國人「集體」拒絕做困難抉擇所導致;美國大眾本來根本不曉得出了什麼事,而那些曉得出了事的人卻還多半認為,解除金融管制是很棒的主意。

再看看歐巴馬另一段話:「和危機爆發前相比,我們勞工的生產力並沒有變低,我們頭腦的創意並沒有減少,對我們財貨和勞務的需求 並未比上周、上月或去年降低。我們的能力絲毫未減。不過,我們因循苟且,保護狹隘的利益,拖延不討喜的決定,這個時代無疑已成為過去。」

這段話的前半部,肯定是改寫自凱因斯當年談論全球經濟大蕭條的文字。鑑於過去數十年來人們提到大政府時,總是不假思索地加以批判,如今能夠聽到一名新總統借用凱因斯的話,頗為令人寬慰。不過,歐巴馬在借用凱因斯的話時,卻有重點漏失了。

歐巴馬與凱因斯均斷言,我們未能善用自己的經濟能力,然而凱因斯也談到「我們陷自己於大泥淖中,試圖操縱一部精密的機器,卻不懂得其運作方式,因而犯下大錯。」凱因斯的洞見力即在於,我們必須設法走出「泥淖」,但歐巴馬在演講中卻代之以那種「我們全難辭其咎,讓我們嚴以待己」的陳腔濫調。

請記得,當年胡佛總統並不怕做不討喜的決定:他面對經濟大蕭條時,敢於削減支出和增稅。可惜的是,這麼做只是讓問題變本加厲。

歐巴馬是前總統布希口中的「決策者」(the decider),他很快便必須做出一些重大決定。尤其是,他必須決定拯救金融體系的行動要有多大膽,而現在不少經濟學家認為,由於金融體系的前景急遽惡化,為了解決危機,新政府勢必要把若干大銀行暫時收歸國有。

那麼,歐巴馬準備好了嗎?或者他在就職演說中的老生常談乃顯示,他要等到全民都具有共識後才出手?若是如此,他的政府將會發現自己趕不上大趨勢,從而陷國家於險境。

這並非我們樂見的情況。隨著時間一周一周過去,這場經濟危機只會變得益加嚴重,更難解決。如果我們不趕快採行大動作,我們可能會發現自己陷於泥淖中好長一段時間。

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(5)
銀行搞砸了 政府還送大禮?
楊明暐 摘譯
2009年2月3日

問:假如您把別人大筆金錢弄丟了,會怎樣?答:您會得到聯邦政府一份大禮,但在錢到手之前,總統會用很難聽的話數落您。

我這樣講不公平嗎?但願如此,不過這種情況似乎正在發生。請搞清楚,我說的不是歐巴馬政府用聯邦支出提升就業和生產的計畫,我指的是金融體系救援計畫,它們堪稱「檸檬社會主義」(lemon socialism)的經典運用:事情出差錯,納稅人買單;事情若順利,股東和主管獲利。

我讀了歐巴馬政府高層官員近來有關金融政策的評述後,覺得彷彿身處2005年,葛林史班依舊是大師,銀行家也仍是資本主義英雄。

財政部長蓋特納說:「我們的金融體系由私人股東經營,由私人機構負責管理,我們願竭盡所能保護這個體系。」而他正準備拿納稅人的錢填補金融體系的巨大損失。

與此同時,《華盛頓郵報》報導,蓋特納和歐巴馬的首席經濟顧問桑默斯「認為政府無法做好銀行管理工作」,可想而知,他們是指相對於那些短短數年內造成逾一兆美元損失的私營銀行天才。即便政府投入所有資金,這種認定私營就是好的偏見,似乎正在扭曲政府對金融危機的反應。

現在,有必要採取行動支撐金融體系。雷曼兄弟破產造成的混亂顯示,讓大金融機構垮掉會嚴重傷害經濟,而許多大銀行正瀕臨倒閉。

銀行此時需要更多資金。在正常時期,銀行藉出售股票籌募資金, 投資人則成了銀行股東。您或許以為,銀行現在無法向投資人籌集到足夠資金,政府應像投資人般提供資金以取得部分所有權。

但銀行股票現在值不了多少錢,花旗集團和美國銀行加起來市值只有520億美元,政府若對銀行挹注足夠的納稅人稅款,使其得以健全運作,會使銀行變成公營企業。

對這種可能性,我的回應是:那又怎樣?假如救銀行是由納稅人買單,他們為何不能在找到私人買家以前擁有銀行所有權?不過歐巴馬政府顯然力圖避免這樣的結果出現。

若新聞報導正確,救銀行計畫包括兩個要項:政府購買銀行部分不良資產,並為銀行其它資產提供擔保。對銀行股東來說,擔保是份大禮,但不良資產這部分不是如果政府依適當價錢予以購買的話。不過《金融時報》報導,政府可能按「評價模式」(valuation models)而非市價收購不良資產,說明政府在這部分也將送出大禮。

政府為股東提供巨額補助後,納稅人得到的回饋是:什麼也沒有。

政府會不會至少對銀行主管報酬設限,以避免發生更多令公眾憤怒的盜竊行為?歐巴馬最近在每周例行演講中痛斥華爾街的分紅作法,但《華盛頓郵報》報導,政府可能不會對接受政府援助的大多數企業 祭出嚴格的主管報酬限制,因為「苛刻的限制會令一些公司不敢求救」。這說明歐巴馬的強硬談話不過是在作秀。

同時,華爾街的放肆貪婪文化似乎未因危機而有所收歛。「我是銀行家,我創造了三千萬美元收入。我應該分一杯羹。」一名銀行家這樣告訴《紐約時報》。那麼虧了三百億美元呢?山姆大叔來救命吧!

公平固然重要,更要緊的是,救經濟花費巨大,八千億美元可能只是頭期款,救援金融體系還需數千億美元。我們無法浪費金錢供銀行及其主管發橫財,目的只是為了保有私人經營的假象。

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(6)
共和黨人正把美國推向經濟深淵
尹德瀚 摘譯
2009年2月7日

在尋求經濟復甦的路上,有件讓人笑不出來的事情發生。過去兩周,一場應該是對如何挽救經濟的嚴肅辯論,又演變成陳腐的政治戲碼,共和黨人口沫橫飛,大談政府支出浪費及減稅造奇蹟的老調。

此情景彷彿過去八年令人扼腕的經濟弊政從未發生。更令人不敢置信的是,民主黨人居然還站在守方。即便大規模振興經濟方案最後在參議院通過,但原始方案的重要部分 ─ 特別是對州和地方政府的補助 ─ 有可能遭閹割。

不知為何,華府對經濟可能墜入無底深淵的現實已完全搞不清狀況,一旦如此,要爬出來可是難上加難。

要對當下困境加以誇張已經很難。這波危機始自房市,但布希時代的房市泡沫內爆造成的經濟骨牌連倒效應不但橫掃美國,更席捲全球。房市崩潰加上股市一瀉千里,使消費者財富縮水大半,也粉碎其樂觀心理,使他們減少開支,大幅增加儲蓄,這長期是好事,對當下經濟卻是大打擊。房地產開發商縮減投資,企業取消擴大產能計畫。出口是過去兩年美國經濟的少數強項之一,金融危機波及美國貿易夥伴後,出口直線下滑。

在這同時,我們對抗不景氣的主防線也潰不成軍。聯邦準備理事會通常可以靠降息支撐經濟,這回利率降到等於零,經濟還是一路走下坡。

難怪經濟預測大多警告說,如果政府不行動,將陷入又深又長的衰退。有些分析師預測失業率將達二位數,國會預算局較樂觀,但最近也警告,財政政策如果不改,國家總生產與產能的落差將出現30年代經濟大蕭條以來最嚴重的情況。最糟的是經濟有可能和30年代一樣,長期卡在通貨緊縮的陷阱。

目前我們與真正通縮之間的距離,已經是大蕭條以來的最近。尤其值得注意的是,民間企業自30年代以來首度普遍減薪,如果經濟繼續走弱,情況會更惡化。

美國大經濟學者歐文.費雪(Irving Fisher)在近八十年前就指出,通縮一旦開始,往往可自行延續。當美元收入面臨經濟凋敝而崩跌時,債務變得難以負荷,預期未來價格滑落也會妨礙資本支出。這些通縮的影響進一步拖垮經濟,導致更多的通縮,有如惡性循環。

通縮陷阱可能持續長時間。日本在90年代經歷過通縮與停滯的「失落的十年」,最後能逃脫陷阱,全靠全球榮景帶動出口。現在全球同步衰退,誰能拯救美國脫離類似的陷阱?

如果歐巴馬的振興經濟方案立法通過,能否確保美國不會有「失落的十年」?不一定。包括我在內的若干經濟學者認為,該案規模太小,應充分擴大,但肯定可增加美國經濟走出困境的機率,而共和黨的做法卻是要把此案搞得更小、更沒效力,在規模上與布希式的減稅方案差不多,因此絕對是敗事有餘。

那歐巴馬該怎麼辦?我和不少人都覺得,他一開始就鑄下大錯,他試圖超越黨派,結果只是助長聽命於保守派電台主持人林保(Rush Limbaugh)的政客勢力。

歐巴馬現在應該反守為攻。對拿著不可信的經濟哲學當令箭而試圖阻礙其方案的政客,他一定要毫不客氣地指出,他們是拿國家前途在冒險。美國經濟正面臨萬丈深淵,而共和黨多數人卻企圖把它推下懸崖。

2008年11月3日

Once again on ‘The myth of the Tragedy of the Commons’ : a reply to criticisms and questions

Ian Angus

A reply to criticisms and questions about my article on Garrett Hardin’s influential essay.


November 3, 2008 -- The response to my recent article “The Myth of the Tragedy of the Commons” (also posted at Links at http://links.org.au/node/595) has been very encouraging. It prompted a small flood of emails to my inbox, was reposted on many websites and blogs around the world, and has been discussed in a variety of online forums.

The majority of the comments were positive, but many readers challenged my critique of Garrett Hardin’s very influential 1968 essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons”. A gratifying number wrote serious and thoughtful criticisms. While they differed in specifics, these responses consistently made one or more of these three points:

How can you say that the tragedy of the commons is a myth? Look at the ecological destruction around us. Isn’t that tragic?

It doesn’t matter if Hardin’s account of the historical commons was wrong. He wasn’t writing history: he just used the commons as a model, or a metaphor.

Hardin wasn’t rejecting all commons, just “unmanaged commons”. A “managed commons” would not be subject to the tragedy.

This article responds to those points. Except under the first heading, I’ve tried to avoid repeating arguments I made in the first article, so if you haven’t already done so, I encourage you read it here first.

How can you say that?

Some respondents described ecological horrors and catastrophes — vanished fisheries, poisoned rivers, greenhouse gases, and more — and then said, in various ways, “The destruction of the world we all share is a terrible tragedy. How can you call it a myth?”

This question reflects an understandable problem with terminology. When Hardin wrote “The Tragedy of the Commons”, he wasn’t using the word “tragedy” in its normal everyday sense of a sad or unfortunate event. I tried to explain this in my article:

“Hardin used the word ‘tragedy’ as Aristotle did, to refer to a dramatic outcome that is the inevitable but unplanned result of a character’s actions. He called the destruction of the commons through overuse a tragedy not because it is sad, but because it is the inevitable result of shared use of the pasture”.

So the point is not whether ecological destruction is real. Of course it is. The point is, did Hardin’s essay correctly explain why that destruction is taking place? Is there something about human nature that is inimical to shared resources? Hardin said yes, and I say that’s a myth.

But it was only a model!

During the 1970s and 1980s, Hardin’s description of the historical commons was so thoroughly debunked by historians and anthropologists that he resorted to denying that he ever meant to be historically accurate. In 1991, he claimed that his account was actually a “hypothetical model” and “whether any particular case is a materialization of that model is a historical question — and of only secondary importance”. (Hardin 1991)

Similarly, an academic who called Hardin “one of the most important thinkers of the 20th century” wrote that his description of the traditional commons was a “thought experiment”, so criticism of his historical errors is irrelevant (Elliot 2003).

But Hardin offered no such qualification in his 1968 essay, or in the many books and articles he wrote on related subjects in the next 20 years. Quite the opposite, in fact.

In a 1977 essay, for example, Hardin referred explicitly to “the way the common pasture lands of England were converted to private property”, by parliamentary Enclosure Acts in the 1700s and 1800s. These Acts, he wrote, “put an end to the tragedy of the commons in this aspect of agriculture”. That’s a very explicit statement about historical facts — there’s nothing “hypothetical” about it (Hardin 1977: p. 46).

So Hardin’s later claim that historical facts don’t matter was an attempt to rewrite his own history. He only claimed the story was “just a model” after it had been thoroughly disproved.

But it was only a metaphor!

In his 1968 essay and many subsequent articles, Hardin lumped together very different social situations and problems, labelled them all “commons” and claimed that the “tragedy of the commons” explained them all. He argued that the destruction of the historical commons explained the collapse of fisheries, overcrowding in US national parks, air and water pollution, “distracting and unpleasant advertising signs”, overpopulation and even “mindless music” in shopping malls.

While his account is often labelled a metaphor, Hardin didn’t say that those situations were similar to commons. He said they were commons, and he repeatedly referred to their problems not as similar to but as aspects of the tragedy of the commons.

If all of those things were commons, then the fact that he was wrong about the historical “tragedy” completely undermines his core argument.

In reality, however, none of the examples he mentions are “commons” in any meaningful sense. Shopping malls and billboard locations are private property, with access controlled by the owners. National parks are managed or mismanaged by government bureaucrats. Unmanaged shared resources like air and water are being polluted by giant corporations, not by “rational herdsmen”. And Hardin’s claim that population growth results from a “commons in breeding” is just plain bizarre.

There’s no evidence that Hardin meant the “tragedy” to be seen as “only a metaphor” — but if he did, it was a very poor metaphor indeed.

He really meant the `unmanaged commons'

Several people suggested that Hardin was really criticising “unmanaged commons”, and thus presumably favoured a “managed commons”. The problem with that idea is that Hardin clearly thought that “managed commons” was a contradiction in terms.

In his original 1968 essay Hardin wrote that a commons “if justifiable at all, is only justifiable under conditions of low-population density”. As population grew, “the commons has had to be abandoned in one aspect after another”. The “tragedy of the commons” could only be avoided by abandoning the commons: either by converting it to private property, or by imposing external controls that effectively eliminate the sharing of resources.

He repeated that argument many times in later articles and books. In 1985, for example:

“A commons is a resource to which a population has free and unmanaged access: it contrasts with private property (access only to the owner) and with socialized property (access to which is controlled by managers appointed by some political unit)”. (Hardin 1985: p. 90.)

In short, Hardin defined the commons as unmanaged — so the claim that he was arguing for “managed commons” doesn’t make sense. When he argued for management, he was arguing for enclosing the commons.

He was more explicit in an article written to mark the 30th anniversary of his original essay: “A ‘managed commons’ describes either socialism or the privatism of free enterprise.” (Hardin, 1998.) Since he equated socialism with bureaucratic state control, it is clear that for him the “managed commons” was not a commons at all.

Several readers said they understood that Hardin later changed his mind, that he said the tragedy only occurred in “unmanaged commons”. One pointed to this sentence, in a speech Hardin gave in 1980:

“As a result of discussions carried out during the past decade I now suggest a better wording of the central idea: Under conditions of overpopulation, freedom in an unmanaged commons brings ruin to all”. (Hardin 1980.)

Note, however, that Hardin only says that this is “better wording”. There is nothing in this restatement of his “central idea” that doesn’t appear in the original essay. Far from recanting, he was trying to be more explicit.

In any event, as we’ve seen, five years later Hardin still defined the commons as unmanaged, so it’s evident that he only added the word “unmanaged” in 1980 to clarify his argument, not to change it.

(Nor did the addition of “under conditions of overpopulation” add anything to what he wrote in 1968. Since Hardin believed that overpopulation was the biggest problem in the Third World countries where most commons-based communities exist today, that qualification just reinforced his general anti-commons argument.)

What does `unmanaged' mean?

While Hardin’s later articles did not revise his original argument fundamentally, they did expand it in a way that provides an important insight into the way he thought about commons-based communities. In the 1980 speech quoted above, he accepted that an unmanaged commons can work if (a) “the informal power of shame” is used to keep people in line and (b) “the community does not exceed about 150 people”.

As evidence for these apparently arbitrary requirements, he cited the example of Hutterite religious communes. Between 40,000 and 50,000 people live in such communities in western Canada and the US: they hold all property in common, and communities normally divide in two when the population reaches 150 or so.

The issue of size is a red herring: many shared resource communities are much larger than the limit the Hutterites have chosen. But what’s truly remarkable here is that Hardin classified Hutterite colonies as unmanaged, with the “informal power of shame” as its only means of staving off the tragedy of the commons. Compare that to this account of Hutterite governance in Canada:

“Each colony elects an executive council from the managers of various enterprises, and together with the colony minister, the executive deals with important matters that will be brought before the assembly (all baptised male members — in effect, men 20 years of age and older). Although women have an official subordinate status, their informal influence on colony life is significant. They hold managerial positions in the kitchen, kindergarten, the purchase of dry goods, and vegetable production”. (Ryan 1999: p. 1125)

Obviously, the word “unmanaged” simply doesn’t apply to Hutterite communities. The fact that Hardin thought it did shows how limited his conceptions were. Anything that wasn’t either privately owned or controlled by the state was, by definition, “unmanaged”.

As Derek Wall points out, such blindness to non-capitalist social structures is widespread in mainstream social science:

“The commons is important because it provides a way of regulating activity without the state or the market…. Throughout history, the commons has been the dominant form of regulation providing an alternative almost universally ignored by economists who are reluctant to admit that substitutes to the market and the state even exist”. (Wall 2005: p. 184.)

Hutterite colonies don’t just share resources — they democratically organise and govern their communities to manage those resources. That was also true of the historical commons in Europe, and it’s true of Indigenous societies in many parts of the world today. As historian Peter Linebaugh writes:

“To speak of the commons as if it were a natural resource is misleading at best and dangerous at worst — the commons is an activity and, if anything, it expresses relationships in society that are inseparable from relations to nature”. (Linebaugh 2008: p. 279).

Hardin, like the economists Wall describes, looked at the world with capitalist blinders on. As a result, he couldn’t recognise a community-managed non-tragic commons when it was right before his eyes.

References

Angus, Ian. 2008. “The Myth of the Tragedy of the Commons”, Climate and Capitalism, August 28, 2008. http://climateandcapitalism.com/?p=513. Also at Links International Journal of Socialist Renewal at http://links.org.au/node/595).

Elliot, Herschel. 2003. “The Revolutionary Import of Garrett Hardin’s Work”, http://tinyurl.com/5tokrk.

Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons”, http://tinyurl.com/o827.

Hardin, Garrett. 1977. “Denial and Disguise”, in Garrett Hardin and John Baden, editors, Managing the Commons. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company, pp 45-52.

Hardin, Garrett. 1980. “An ecolate view of the human predicament”, http://tinyurl.com/t98c.

Hardin, Garrett. 1985. Filters Against Folly, How to Survive Despite Economists, Ecologists and the Merely Eloquent. New York: Viking Press.

Hardin, Garrett. 1991. “The Tragedy of the Unmanaged Commons: Population and the Disguises of Providence”, in Robert V. Andelson, editor, Commons Without Tragedy: Protecting the Environment from Over-Population - A New Approach. Savage MD: Barnes & Noble.

Hardin, Garrett. 1995. “Extension of the Tragedy of the Commons”, http://tinyurl.com/bow6h.

Linebaugh, Peter. 2008. The Magna Carta Manifesto: Liberties and Commons for All. Los Angeles: University of California Press.

Wall, Derek. 2005. Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-Capitalist, Anti-Globalist and Radical Green Movements. London: Pluto Books.

Ryan, John. 1999. “Hutterites”. in James Marsh, editor, The Canadian Encyclopedia, Year 2000 Edition. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, pp. 1124-1125.

公地的悲劇

加勒特 ‧ 哈丁 (Garrett Hardin)
英文:The Tragedy of the Commons by Garrett Hardin (1968)
《科學Science》162(1968):1243-1248頁

1968

J.B. Wiesner 和H.F. York在一篇關於核子戰爭前景的發人深省文章結尾時說:「武器競賽的雙方都是…面對持續增強的軍事力量和持續減弱的國家安全。深思之下,我們的專業意見認為這困局沒有技術性的解決辦法。如果大國只是在科學和科技這方面找尋解決辦法,結果只會令情況惡化。」

希望各位不要集中注意文章的主題(核武世界的國家安全),而是要留意作者的結論,即是問題沒有技術性的解決辦法。專業和半通俗科學期刊的評論,差不多都隱喻評論的問題是有技術性的解決辦法。技術性解決辦法可以定義為只要改變自然科學的技術,無需或只是稍為改變人的道德價值或概念。

我們現在一般都歡迎有技術性解決辦法(以前並非如此)。因為以前的預言往往失準,要有莫大勇氣才會斷言沒有預期的技術性解決辦法。Wiesner 和York表現出勇氣,在科學期刊發表文章,堅持問題不能在自然科學找到解決辦法。他們小心翼翼為聲明加上以下的註解:「深思之下,我們的專業意見…。」本文所關注的。不是他們是否正確,而是一個重要的觀點:有一組關乎人的問題可以稱為「沒有技術性解決辦法的問題」,或是更明確地說:認定和討論這些問題是其中之一。

要表明這類問題不是空號很容易。還記得劃井遊戲。想一想:「我如何贏劃井遊戲?」假設(依照賽局理論的慣例)我的對手是個中能手,大家都知道我不可能贏。換句話說,問題沒有「技術性解決辦法」。要贏,我只能把「贏」的意義根本改掉。我可以打對方的頭,可以弄虛作假。每一種我要「贏」的方法,都是某種意義上放棄了我們認知了解的遊戲。(我當然可以公開放棄—不玩。大多數成年人都這樣。)

「沒有技術性解決辦法的問題」有其他的命題。我的論題:大家慣常認知的「人口問題」是這樣的命題。要說明一下大家是怎樣慣常認知的。持平的說,大多數人為人口問題苦惱,要找出方法避免人口過多的邪惡,但不放棄他們正在享受的特權。他們以為海洋養殖或發明小麥新品種會解決問題—從技術方面。我嘗試証明他們不能找到解決辦法。人口問題正如要贏劃井遊戲,不能技術性解決。

我們要最大化什麼?

如馬爾薩斯 所言,人口自然地以「幾何級數」增加,或是我們現在的說法是函數增加。在一個有限的世界,這即是說世界物品的人均份額必然減少。我們的世界是否有限?

一個中肯的抗辯說法:世界是無限的,或是我們不知道世界不是無限。但是,從實際問題角度來看以後幾代人和可見的科技,很清楚如果我們不是即時假設陸上人類可用的世界是有限的,我們會大大增加人類的痛苦。「太空」不是逃生門。

有限的世界只能養活有限的人口;因此到了最後,人口增長必然是零。(零增長的永恆大幅度上下波動是無關宏旨的變動,不在此討論。)當條件符合,人類的情況會是怎樣?明確地說,邊泌 的目標:「最大數目的最大好處」能否實現?

不可能—理由有二,單是一個已足夠。第一個理由是理論性。數學上,兩個函數是不可能同時最大化。Neumann和Morgenstern已經清楚說明 ,其中的絕對原理是起碼可以追溯至D'Alembert (1717-1783) 的偏微分方程式。

第二個理由是直接源於生物事實。任何生物要生存,必須有一個能源來源(例如食物)。能源用於兩個目的:維生和工作。人要維持生命,每天需要 1600 千卡路里(維生卡路里)。維生以外所做的一切可以定義為工作,由攝取的「工作卡路里」支持。工作卡路里不是只用於我們日常談到的工作;所有享樂形式都需要:遊泳、賽車、音樂,吟詩。如果我們的目標是人口最大化,我們要做什麼是很明顯。我們要每個人的工作卡路里最接近零。沒有可口美食,沒有渡假,沒有運動,沒有音樂,沒有文學,沒有藝術…我以為無需爭議或實証,大家都同意人口最大化不會物品最大化。邊泌的目標是不可能的。

我在達成以上的結論時,作出一貫的假定,問題就是取得能源。有了核能,有些人會質疑這假定。但是,即使有無窮能源,人口增長依然帶來不可逃避的問題。正如J. H. Fremlin機智表達,取得能源的問題,被能源消散取而代之 。分析的算術符號正負倒轉;但邊泌的目標是不能達到。

因此,最合適的人口是少於最大。定義最合適的困難大;依我所知,沒有人曾鄭重處理這問題。要達致一個可接受和穩定的解決辦法,需要多過一代人的辛勤分析—和更大說服力。

我們期望每個人有最大好處;但什麼是「好處」?某人的好處是荒原,另一人是大眾的滑雪小屋。某人的好處是河口盛產水鴨,供獵人射擊;另一人是工廠用地。我們一般說比較各人的心頭好是不可能的,因為物品是不配比較。不配比較就是不能比較。

理論上這可能是對的;但實際生活中不配比較是可以衡量的。只需要一套判斷的標準和比重的制度。大自然的標準就是生存。何等物種較好:小而可掩藏,或是大而有勁力?物競天擇會比較不配比較的。達致的妥協是視乎大自然為眾多變數的價值作出比重。

人必須模仿這過程。無可置疑地,他事實上不自覺地已是如此。只有當隱藏的決定表面化時才有爭端。未來的工作難題是要作出一個可接受的比重理論。這項智力難題因協同作用,非線性變化,和考慮將來而變得困難,但(原則上)不是不可能解決。

至今,是否有任何文化組群解決了這實際問題,即使是直覺層面?一個簡單事實証明還沒有:現今世界沒有繁榮人口在一段時期內達致零增長。只要任何人在直覺上認定最佳點,就可以很快達到,之後增長率為零,其後亦保持為零。

當然,增長率為正數,可以作為人口在最佳點之下的證據。但是,以任何理性標準來看,今天世上增長最快的人口,(一般而言)是最悲慘的。這種連繫(無須是一成不變的)令人對所謂正數增長率表示人口還沒有達致最佳點的樂觀假定感到懷疑。

邁向人口最佳數目,我們要驅逐亞當‧史密的實踐人口學的幽靈,才可以取得寸進。「國富論」 (1776) 廣為宣揚「無形之手」,這概念即是個人「只是追求自己的利益」,因而「被無形的手指揮,推動…公眾利益。」亞當‧史密沒有宣稱這是一成不變的真理,甚至他的追隨者也沒有。但他帶動的主導思想趨勢自此干擾著基於理性分析的積極性行動。這種趨勢就是假定個人決定事實上是整個社會的最佳決定。如果這假定是正確的,現在的自由放任生育政策是有據可依。如果這假定是錯誤的,我們重新檢視種種個人自由,看看那些是可以辯護的。

公地自由的悲劇

無形之手控制人口的反駁論點,最先見諸1833年一位業餘數學家William Forster Lloyd (1794-1852) 撰寫的一本鮮為人知的小冊子,可稱之為「公地悲劇」;「悲劇」一詞借用自哲學家Whitehead :「戲劇性的悲劇要素不是不快樂,而是蘊藏於事物無懊無悔運作的嚴肅性。」他續後又說:「命運之無可避免,只能以人生不如意事引證,只有這樣戲劇才可顯現逃避是徒然的。」

公地悲劇是如此發展的。想像草原對大眾開放,估計每個牛郎都會在公地飼養最多的牛隻。數百年來,這樣的安排都是相安無事,因為部族戰爭,偷獵,和疾病把人和動物的數目保持在土地承載能力之下。最終,人們長久渴望的社會穩定的一天到來,是醒悟的時候了。這時,公地的內在邏輯無情地導致悲劇。

作為理性人,每名牛郎追求取得最大得益。或明或暗,有意無意,牛郎撫心自問:「牛群多添一頭,對我有什麼效益?」這效應有正、負成份各一。

(1)多一頭動物的函數是正成份。出售牛隻的收益全歸牛郎,所以正效益接近+1。
(2)負數部份是多一頭動物造成的過度放牧的函數。因為過度放牧的效果由全體牛郎承擔,所以任何一位牛郎作出決定,負效益只是 -1的小部份。

把這些效益成份相加,理性牛郎總結他只有一個理性選擇:多養一頭牛。再多養一頭…但這也是分享公地的每一位牛郎的結論。悲劇因此而起。每個人都是被制度束縛,驅使他無限制地增加牛隻—而世界是有限的。在一個信奉公地自由的社會中,每個人都追求本人的最好利益,而整體是走向毀滅的終點。公地自由帶來整體毀滅。

有人會認為這是陳腔濫調。這不是碼?某程度上來說,我們幾千年前就學會了,但物競天擇偏向於心理否認 。縱使個人也是成員的社會受損,個人會因為取得私利而否認真相。教育可以對衡做錯事的自然傾向,但必須持續才可以對抗一代傳一代的無情力。

幾年前,在麻省市有一件小事足以說明知識逐漸消失。聖誕節購物期間,市中心的停車錶用膠袋遮掩,上有告示:「聖誕節後重開。免費停車由市長和市議會提供。」換句話說,面對本來已是短缺的停車位的需求增加,城市之父再建立公地制度。(嘲笑一句,我們懷疑他們這倒退的行為是得(選票)大於失。)

大概是同樣道理,我們長久以來已明白公地的邏輯,可能是自從發現農業或發明私人房地產的產權。但了解的大都是特殊個案,不足以一般而論。即使到了現在,租用西部山區國家土地的牧人證實這樣矛盾的了解;他們向聯邦機關施壓,要求增加牛隻數目,幾乎因為過度放牧導致侵蝕和雜草叢生。全球海洋依然因為公地哲理殘存而受害。海洋國家依然聽從「四海自由」的口令。他們聲言相信「海洋有無窮資源」,令多種魚類和鯨魚幾乎滅絕。

國家公園是公地悲劇的另一個例子。現今是對外開放,沒有限制。公園範圍是有限的—只有一個優勝美谷 —但人口增長沒有限制。公園訪客享樂的價值逐漸減弱。很簡單,我們要盡快不要把公園當作公地,否則對任何人都不會有價值。

我們可以做什麼?有幾個方案。可以出售為私人產業;可以保留為公共財產,但分配進入的權利。分配可以是以財富為基礎,用拍賣方式。亦可以根據一些彼此同意的標準來定優劣。可以是彩票。或是先到先得,由人龍決定。我以為以上提到的都令人反感。但我們必須選擇—或是默許我們稱為國家公園的公地被毀。

污染

公地悲劇的反面是污染問題,不是從公地拿走,而是放入—往水中排放污水,或化學、放射性、和熱力廢物;往空氣排放有害和危害的氣體;在視線所及樹立令人分神和不悅目的廣告。計算效益和前述一樣。理性人發覺他向公地排放廢物的成本,是少於排放前潔淨廢物的成本。無個人都是一樣;只要我們這些獨立,理性,自由的投機者自作妄為,大家都受縛於「自家弄髒自家」的制度。

食物籃子的公地悲劇,因為私產或類似的正式安排而避免了。但我們周圍的空氣和水不能輕易地分隔,所以要用不同的方法防止污水坑公地悲劇:強制的法律或稅務措施,做成污染者在排放前處理污染物成本比不處理為低。我們解決這問題的進展,不如解決第一個問題。停止我們耗盡地球的直接資源的私產概念,實際上助長污染。小河岸邊工廠的主人—他的產權伸延到小河的中央—不容易明白弄髒流經門前的河水不是他的自然權利。法律永遠趕不上時代,需要修修補補來適應這「公地」的新意識。

污染問題是人口的後果。未開發地區的孤獨居民如何棄置廢物,沒有所謂。祖父以前常說:「水流十里,自我淨化。」當他是小孩時,這神話可能近乎真理,因為沒有太多人。但人口變得密集,大自然的化學和生物循環過程負荷過重,呼喚產權要重新定義。
如何為節制立法?

分析污染問題作為人口密度連帶產生的事物,帶出一項不是普遍了解的道德原則:行動的道德是其進行時體制情況連帶產生的事物。把公地用作污水池,在未開發情況不會危及大眾,因為沒有大眾;在大都市這樣做就不能忍受。一百五十年前,平地居民殺死野牛,只割下牛舌頭做晚餐,其他的棄掉。他不是浪費。今天只餘下幾千頭野牛,同樣的行為令人驚駭。

順帶一提,不能由一張相片決定行動的道德。除非知道某人行動時的整體體系,我們不知道某人殺象或放火燒草是否危及他人。中國古人有言:「一張圖畫可代千言萬語」,但可能要用千言萬語來証實圖畫。生態學者和改革者一般試圖用相片捷徑來說服他人。但相片不能攝影辯論的要義;這必須用文字理性表達。

以前編理道德,沒有注意到道德是和體系有緊密關係。傳統的道德指令形式:「汝不得…」沒有顧及特別環境。我們社會的法律依循古老道德的模式,所以大大不適用於複雜,人多和可改變的世界。我們的團團轉解決辦法是用行政法擴大法定的法律。實際上是不可能列出在後園燒垃圾或是沒有煙霧管制開車的全部情況,我國立法把細節下放給官僚。行政法就是這樣來的;有一個古老的理由令我們擔心—誰來監管監管者 ?John Adams說過,我們必須有「法治的政府,不是人治。」行政官僚嘗試評價處於整個體系的行動的道德,容易變得腐敗,貪污;產生人治的政府,不是法治。

立法禁止容易(但執法不一定如是);但我們如何為「節制」立法?經濟指出用行政法來仲裁可以達到目的。如果我們對「誰來監管」的感受防礙利用行政法,我們是不必要地限制了可行的辦法。我們應當保留這一句話來提醒我們不能避免可怕的危險。我們面對的大挑戰,是發明矯正的回饋,保證監管者大公無私。我們必須找出方法,為監管者和矯正的回饋立法,賦予所需權力。

自由生育是不能容忍

人口問題在另一方面涉及公地悲劇。在一個由「狗吃狗」原則管治的世界—如果曾經有這樣的世界—一個家庭有多少子女不會受公共關注。為人父母生育過多子女,存活的後裔只會少,不會多,因為他們沒有能力照顧子女。David Lack和其他人發現這樣的負面回饋控制了鳥類的生育力。但人類不是鳥類,超碼在過去幾千年都不是如此。

如果每個人類家庭都是依賴本身的資源;如果眼光短淺父母的子女飢餓致死;如果過度生育為生殖細胞帶來自我的「懲罰」—那麼管制家庭生育是不涉公共利益。但我們的社會是深深地受福利國家所約束 ,因而面對公地悲劇的另一面。

在一個福利國家,我們如何應付以過度生育來保證擴大本身的家庭,宗教,種族,或階層(或是任何可以識別和有凝聚力的社群) ?自由生育的概念,連同人人生而平等的信念,足以令世界逃脫不了悲慘的行動。

不幸地,這正是聯合國要採取的行動。1967年後半年,約三十個國家同意「人權宣言描述家庭是社會的自然和基本單位。因此家庭人口的任何選擇和決定,無可置疑是由家庭作出,不可聽命於他人。」

要明確否定這項權利的合法性是痛苦的;要否定,人們感到不安,正如十七世紀的麻省居民否定女巫存在的現實。現時,自由主義陣營視批評聯合國為禁忌,感覺是聯合國是「我們最後,最好的希望」,我們不應吹毛求瑕,不要讓頑固保守主義者玩弄。但是我們不要忘記Robert Louis Stevenson的話:「朋友禁制的真理,是敵人最靈活的武器。」如果我們深愛真理,我就必須公開否定人權宣言的合法性,雖然這是聯合國所推廣。我國應當聯同Kingsley Davis ,試圖改變「計劃生育-世界人口組織 」追隨同一悲劇性理想的錯誤。

良知是自我消除

認為長期控制人類生育是訴諸良知,這種想法是錯誤的。Charles Galton Darwin在他祖父的偉大著作百年紀念時發言時,就指出這點。達爾文式的論點簡單直接。

人各不同。面對限制生育的呼籲,無疑有些人的反應比較積極。比起那些易受良知影響的人,那些多子女的佔下一代的比例較大。這些差別會一代傳一代的重複。

C. G. Darwin如是說:「可能要經歷幾百世代才發展出這種偏重繁殖的本能;如確實如此,大自然會報復的。避孕人品種會滅絕,被生殖人品種取代。」

這論點是假設生兒育女的良知或欲望(無所謂是那一種)是遺傳的—所謂遺傳是以最一般性的正式意思而言。用J. Lotka的定義來說:無論這態度是經生殖細胞或是體外傳播,結果都是一樣。(如果否定後者的可能性,也否定前者,那麼教育有什麼意義?」以上是在人口問題的背景提出這個論點,但這也適用於社會呼籲濫用公地的個人,為了大眾利益而抑制自己的任何情況—利用他的良知。利用這樣的呼籲,是設立一個最終消除人類良知的選擇性機制。

良知的致病效果

呼籲良知的長期弊端已足以宣告廢棄這作法;這亦有短期缺失。當我們要求濫用公地的人們,「因良知之名」而停止,可以對他說什麼呢?他會聽到什麼? —不止是當時,也是夜深人靜,半睡半醒時,他記得我們的說話,也記我們的非言語溝通暗示?有意無意之間,他遲早體會到他接收到兩種訊息,而彼此是矛盾的:(1)(存心的訊息)「如果你不遵紀,我們會公開譴責你沒有作為負責任的公民」;(2)(無意的訊息)「如果你聽話而行,我們會暗中責怪你頭腦簡單,罵幾句就站在一旁,容許我們這些人繼續濫用公地。」

每個人都陷於Bateson稱之為「進退兩難的處境」。他和同僚有一個言之成理的說法,認為進退兩難是精神分裂症的重要成因。 進退兩難,不一定是這樣有害,但人若陷於其中,會危及精神健康。尼采如是說:「良心不安,是一種疾病。」

喚起他人的良知,對試圖超越法定限制,伸展控制的人來說,是具誘惑的。最高領導人屈從於這種誘惑。在過去一代人,是否有總統從不號召工會自願節制他們對較高工資的要求,或是要求鋼鐵公司遵守定價的自動指引?記憶所及,沒有。每一次的用詞遣字都著意在令不合作者有犯罪感。

幾百年來,一直都假定犯罪感是文明生命中有價值,甚至是不可缺少的成份。在這個後佛洛依德的世界,我們有懷疑。

Paul Goodman從現代觀點來看:「犯罪感從來沒有帶來好事,無論是智能,政策或熱情。犯罪者只關注自己,不會留意犯錯的事物,甚至不會留意本身的利益(這可能有意思),只留意本身的焦慮。」

我們不需要是專業心理學家才看出焦慮的後果。我們在西方社會中,正從兩百年的欲望黑暗年代走出來;這年代部份是由禁制性法律所維繫,但可能更為見效的是教育的產生焦慮機制。Alex Comfort在The Anxiety Makers 描述得很好;這並不是賞心悅目的。

因為取證困難,我們甚至可能承認焦慮的後果,可能有時從某些觀點來看,是值得的。我們要提一個較大的問題,就是作為政策,我們應否鼓勵使用一項傾向(如果不是動機)於心理病態的技術。這些日子中,我們時常聽到提及負責任—父母心;這兩個相連的詞語也包括在一些專注於控制生育的組織。有人提出龐大的宣傳,向全國(或是全世界)的生育者灌輸責任感。但什麼是良知的意義?當我們引用「責任」而沒有相當的制裁,我們是否在嚇唬公地的人們作出有違本身利益的行動?「責任」是實體代用品的言語偽裝,試圖不付出而取得一些回報。

如果我們要用上「責任」,是好是用上Charles Frankel的意思 。這位哲學家說:「責任是有限社會安排的產物。」留意Frankel提出社會安排—不是宣傳。

彼此同意的彼此強制

產生責任的社會安排,是建立強制安排,或是類似的安排。考慮銀行劫案。搶劫銀行的歹徒是把銀行當作是公地。可以如何防止?當然不是用語言來喚起他的責任感來試圖管制他的行為,只是依隨Frankel的指導—用宣傳來堅持銀行不是公地;我們尋求有限度的社會安排,確保銀行不會成為公地。這樣一來我們侵犯了潛在劫匪的自由,我們不會否認或後悔。

搶劫銀行的道德觀很容易明白,因為我們接受要完全禁止這種活動。我們情願說「汝不得搶劫銀行」,沒有例外。但節制也可以由強制建立。稅務是一項好的強制措施。要節制市中心的購物者使用車位,我們用停車錶管制短期停車,交通罰款處理長時間停車。我們無需禁止市民泊車,他要停多久就多久;我們只需讓他泊車越久,費用就更高。我們不是提出禁制,而是仔細考慮的偏重方案。廣告人 可能稱之為「說服」,我喜用直率的「強制」。

對大多數自由主義者來說,「強制」是髒話,但無需永遠是這樣的。正如其他髒話,暴露於光線之下,一次又一次不帶道歉,不感侷促說出來,都會清洗骯髒感。對許多人來說,強制的含意是遙遠,不負責任的官僚的隨意決定;這不是本來意義的必然部份。我推薦的唯一強制是彼此強制,由大多數受影響的人們彼此同意。

彼此同意強制,並不是說我們需要享受強制,或是假裝享受。誰人會享受納稅?我們全都為納稅發牢騷。但我們接受強制性稅務,因為認識到自願性納稅只會是沒有良知的人得益。我們開創和(抱怨)支持納稅和其他強制性措施來逃避公地的恐怖。

公地以外的另外方案無需是十全十美,只要是較好的。房產和其他實質物品的另外方案是創立產權和法定承繼權。這制度是否完全公正?作為基因曾受訓的生物學者,我持否定見解。對我來說,如果個人承繼要有差別的話,法定擁有權應該和生物性承繼完全關連—那些生物性方面是產業和權力更適合的監護人,應當在法律方面承繼更多。「龍生龍,鳳生鳳」的說法,隱含於我們的法定承繼法律,但經常被基因重組所嘲弄。笨蛋可以承繼百萬家財,和信託基金可以完整保存全部財產。我們必須承認我們的私有產權法律制度,連同承繼權,是不公正的—但我們接受,因為我們不相信到現時為止,有人發明更好的制度。公地的另外方案是不敢想像的恐怖。不公正比全面毀滅來得好。

改革與保持現況的戰爭,奇特之處之一是被雙重標準無意識地管制。當有改革措施提出時,往往因為反對者找到其中瑕疵而落敗。正如Kingsley Davis指出:現況的崇拜者有時暗示沒有完全同意的協議,改革是不可能的;這樣的暗示違反史實。我盡可能去了解,自動拒絕改革建議是基於兩項不自覺的假定:(1)現況是十全十美;或(2)我們面對的選擇是改革,或是不採用行動;如果改革建議不是十全十美,我們大概應當不採用行動,等待十全十美的建議。

但是我們不可以全然不動。幾千年來,我們所做的就是採取行動。這也會產生邪惡。一旦我們和道行動就是現況,我們就可以比較可發現的利害,和改革建議的利害比較,盡我們所能因為我們沒有經驗而打折扣。基於這樣的比較,我們可以排除認為只能接受完美制度這項不通的假定,作出理性的決定。

承認必然力

或許對人們的人口問題最簡單的摘要是這樣:如果要說道理的話,公地只可以在低人口密度的條件下成立。隨著人類人口增加,公地的觀點必須逐一放棄。

我們先放棄在公地採集食物,把農地圈圍起來,草原,獵區和漁區列為禁區。這些限制不是在全世界都有全部執行。

稍後,我們所見公地作為廢物處置地亦要放棄。西方世界普遍接受限制家庭污水排放;我們仍然苦心經營從公地排除汽車、工廠、殺蟲劑、施肥、和核電裝置的污染。

我們對尋樂的公地弊端的認識還在萌芽階段。對於公眾媒介散播音浪,幾乎沒有限制。購物大眾在沒有許可的情況下,被無意義的音樂猛烈襲擊。我們的政府付出億萬美元創造超音速運輸;把一位仁兄快速從此岸送到彼岸,省下三小時,就有五十萬人受到騷擾。廣告商弄髒了電台和電視的大氣電波,污染游人的視覺。立法禁止尋樂公地,我們還有很長的路。這是否因為我們的清教徒傳統視尋樂為罪惡,視痛苦(即是廣告污染)為美德?

每次公地被圈圍,都侵犯了一些人的個人自由。大家都接受往日做成的侵犯,因為現代人不會投訴有損失。我們激烈反對的是新近提出的侵犯;「權利」和「自由」充斥。但「自由」是什麼意思?當人們彼此同意立法禁止搶劫,人類享有更多自由,不是更少。受困於公地邏輯的人們,享用自由只會帶來全面毀滅;一旦人們看清楚彼此強制的必然性,他們變得有自由去追尋其他目標。我相信是黑格爾說過:「自由是必然性的了解。」

我們必須承認必然性最重要一點,是放棄生育的公地。沒有技術性的解決辦法,可以從人口過多的憂愁中拯救我們。生育自由會毀滅全體。為了避免困難的決定,現時我們大多數會受誘惑傾向宣傳良知和負責任的父母心。必須抗拒這種誘惑,因為呼籲獨立運作的良知,長期而言是選擇全部良知消失,短期而言增加焦慮。

要保存和孕育其他和更寶貴的自由,唯一的辦法是放棄生育自由,還要快快放棄。「自由是必然性的了解」—教育的作用是向大家披露放棄生育自由的必然性。只有這樣,我們才可以終結這方面的公地悲劇。

(自學書院譯文,根據Creative Commons條款發表 : http://www.self-learning-college.org/forum/viewtopic.php?t=303)

The Myth of the Tragedy of the Commons

Ian Angus
Is community ownership of land, forests and fisheries a guaranteed road to ecological disaster?
Socialist Voice --- http://climateandcapitalism.com/?p=513
August 25, 2008


Will shared resources always be misused and overused? Is community ownership of land, forests and fisheries a guaranteed road to ecological disaster? Is privatization the only way to protect the environment and end Third World poverty? Most economists and development planners will answer “yes” — and for proof they will point to the most influential article ever written on those important questions.

Since its publication in Science in December 1968, “The Tragedy of the Commons” has been anthologized in at least 111 books, making it one of the most-reprinted articles ever to appear in any scientific journal. It is also one of the most-quoted: a recent Google search found “about 302,000” results for the phrase “tragedy of the commons.”

For 40 years it has been, in the words of a World Bank Discussion Paper, “the dominant paradigm within which social scientists assess natural resource issues.” (Bromley and Cernea 1989: 6) It has been used time and again to justify stealing indigenous peoples’ lands, privatizing health care and other social services, giving corporations ‘tradable permits’ to pollute the air and water, and much more.

Noted anthropologist Dr. G.N. Appell (1995) writes that the article “has been embraced as a sacred text by scholars and professionals in the practice of designing futures for others and imposing their own economic and environmental rationality on other social systems of which they have incomplete understanding and knowledge.”

Like most sacred texts, “The Tragedy of the Commons” is more often cited than read. As we will see, although its title sounds authoritative and scientific, it fell far short of science.

Garrett Hardin hatches a myth

The author of “The Tragedy of the Commons” was Garrett Hardin, a University of California professor who until then was best-known as the author of a biology textbook that argued for “control of breeding” of “genetically defective” people. (Hardin 1966: 707) In his 1968 essay he argued that communities that share resources inevitably pave the way for their own destruction; instead of wealth for all, there is wealth for none.

He based his argument on a story about the commons in rural England.

(The term “commons” was used in England to refer to the shared pastures, fields, forests, irrigation systems and other resources that were found in many rural areas until well into the 1800s. Similar communal farming arrangements existed in most of Europe, and they still exist today in various forms around the world, particularly in indigenous communities.)

“Picture a pasture open to all,” Hardin wrote. A herdsmen who wants to expand his personal herd will calculate that the cost of additional grazing (reduced food for all animals, rapid soil depletion) will be divided among all, but he alone will get the benefit of having more cattle to sell.

Inevitably, “the rational herdsman concludes that the only sensible course for him to pursue is to add another animal to his herd.” But every “rational herdsman” will do the same thing, so the commons is soon overstocked and overgrazed to the point where it supports no animals at all.

Hardin used the word “tragedy” as Aristotle did, to refer to a dramatic outcome that is the inevitable but unplanned result of a character’s actions. He called the destruction of the commons through overuse a tragedy not because it is sad, but because it is the inevitable result of shared use of the pasture. “Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.”

Where’s the evidence?

Given the subsequent influence of Hardin’s essay, it’s shocking to realize that he provided no evidence at allto support his sweeping conclusions. He claimed that the “tragedy” was inevitable — but he didn’t show that it had happened even once.

Hardin simply ignored what actually happens in a real commons: self-regulation by the communities involved. One such process was described years earlier in Friedrich Engels’ account of the “mark,” the form taken by commons-based communities in parts of pre-capitalist Germany:

“[T]he use of arable and meadowlands was under the supervision and direction of the community …

“Just as the share of each member in so much of the mark as was distributed was of equal size, so was his share also in the use of the ‘common mark.’ The nature of this use was determined by the members of the community as a whole. …

“At fixed times and, if necessary, more frequently, they met in the open air to discuss the affairs of the mark and to sit in judgment upon breaches of regulations and disputes concerning the mark.” (Engels 1892)

Historians and other scholars have broadly confirmed Engels’ description of communal management of shared resources. A summary of recent research concludes:

“[W]hat existed in fact was not a ‘tragedy of the commons’ but rather a triumph: that for hundreds of years — and perhaps thousands, although written records do not exist to prove the longer era — land was managed successfully by communities.” (Cox 1985: 60)

Part of that self-regulation process was known in England as “stinting” — establishing limits for the number of cows, pigs, sheep and other livestock that each commoner could graze on the common pasture. Such “stints” protected the land from overuse (a concept that experienced farmers understood long before Hardin arrived) and allowed the community to allocate resources according to its own concepts of fairness.

The only significant cases of overstocking found by the leading modern expert on the English commons involved wealthy landowners who deliberately put too many animals onto the pasture in order to weaken their much poorer neighbours’ position in disputes over the enclosure (privatization) of common lands. (Neeson 1993: 156)

Hardin assumed that peasant farmers are unable to change their behaviour in the face of certain disaster. But in the real world, small farmers, fishers and others have created their own institutions and rules for preserving resources and ensuring that the commons community survived through good years and bad.

Why does the herder want more?

Hardin’s argument started with the unproven assertion that herdsmen always want to expand their herds: “It is to be expected that each herdsman will try to keep as many cattle as possible on the commons. … As a rational being, each herdsman seeks to maximize his gain.”

In short, Hardin’s conclusion was predetermined by his assumptions. “It is to be expected” that each herdsman will try to maximize the size of his herd — and each one does exactly that. It’s a circular argument that proves nothing.

Hardin assumed that human nature is selfish and unchanging, and that society is just an assemblage of self-interested individuals who don’t care about the impact of their actions on the community. The same idea, explicitly or implicitly, is a fundamental component of mainstream (i.e., pro-capitalist) economic theory.

All the evidence (not to mention common sense) shows that this is absurd: people are social beings, and society is much more than the arithmetic sum of its members. Even capitalist society, which rewards the most anti-social behaviour, has not crushed human cooperation and solidarity. The very fact that for centuries “rational herdsmen” did not overgraze the commons disproves Hardin’s most fundamental assumptions — but that hasn’t stopped him or his disciples from erecting policy castles on foundations of sand.

Even if the herdsman wanted to behave as Hardin described, he couldn’t do so unless certain conditions existed.

There would have to be a market for the cattle, and he would have to be focused on producing for that market, not for local consumption. He would have to have enough capital to buy the additional cattle and the fodder they would need in winter. He would have to be able to hire workers to care for the larger herd, build bigger barns, etc. And his desire for profit would have to outweigh his interest in the long-term survival of his community.

In short, Hardin didn’t describe the behaviour of herdsmen in pre-capitalist farming communities — he described the behaviour of capitalists operating in a capitalist economy. The universal human nature that he claimed would always destroy common resources is actually the profit-driven “grow or die” behaviour of corporations.

Will private ownership do better?

That leads us to another fatal flaw in Hardin’s argument: in addition to providing no evidence that maintaining the commons will inevitably destroy the environment, he offered no justification for his opinion that privatization would save it. Once again he simply presented his own prejudices as fact:

“We must admit that our legal system of private property plus inheritance is unjust — but we put up with it because we are not convinced, at the moment, that anyone has invented a better system. The alternative of the commons is too horrifying to contemplate. Injustice is preferable to total ruin.”

The implication is that private owners will do a better job of caring for the environment because they want to preserve the value of their assets. In reality, scholars and activists have documented scores of cases in which the division and privatization of communally managed lands had disastrous results. Privatizing the commons has repeatedly led to deforestation, soil erosion and depletion, overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and the ruin of ecosystems.

As Karl Marx wrote, nature requires long cycles of birth, development and regeneration, but capitalism requires short-term returns.

“[T]he entire spirit of capitalist production, which is oriented towards the most immediate monetary profits, stands in contradiction to agriculture, which has to concern itself with the whole gamut of permanent conditions of life required by the chain of human generations. A striking illustration of this is furnished by the forests, which are only rarely managed in a way more or less corresponding to the interests of society as a whole…” (Marx 1998: 611n)

Contrary to Hardin’s claims, a community that shares fields and forests has a strong incentive to protect them to the best of its ability, even if that means not maximizing current production, because those resources will be essential to the community’s survival for centuries to come. Capitalist owners have the opposite incentive, because they will not survive in business if they don’t maximize short-term profit. If ethanol promises bigger and faster profits than centuries-old rain forests, the trees will fall.

This focus on short-term gain has reached a point of appalling absurdity in recent best-selling books by Bjorn Lomborg, William Nordhaus and others, who argue that it is irrational to spend money to stop greenhouse gas emissions today, because the payoff is too far in the future. Other investments, they say, will produce much better returns, more quickly.

Community management isn’t an infallible way of protecting shared resources: some communities have mismanaged common resources, and some commons may have been overused to extinction. But no commons-based community has capitalism’s built-in drive to put current profits ahead of the well-being of future generations.

A politically useful myth

The truly appalling thing about “The Tragedy of the Commons” is not its lack of evidence or logic — badly researched and argued articles are not unknown in academic journals. What’s shocking is the fact that thispiece of reactionary nonsense has been hailed as a brilliant analysis of the causes of human suffering and environmental destruction, and adopted as a basis for social policy by supposed experts ranging from economists and environmentalists to governments and United Nations agencies.

Despite being refuted again and again, it is still used today to support private ownership and uncontrolled markets as sure-fire roads to economic growth.

The success of Hardin’s argument reflects its usefulness as a pseudo-scientific explanation of global poverty and inequality, an explanation that doesn’t question the dominant social and political order. It confirms the prejudices of those in power: logical and factual errors are nothing compared to the very attractive (to the rich) claim that the poor are responsible for their own poverty. The fact that Hardin’s argument also blames the poor for ecological destruction is a bonus.

Hardin’s essay has been widely used as an ideological response to anti-imperialist movements in the Third World and discontent among indigenous and other oppressed peoples everywhere in the world.

“Hardin’s fable was taken up by the gathering forces of neo-liberal reaction in the 1970s, and his essay became the ‘scientific’ foundation of World Bank and IMF policies, viz. enclosure of commons and privatization of public property. … The message is clear: we must never treat the earth as a ‘common treasury.’ We must be ruthless and greedy or else we will perish.” (Boal 2007)

In Canada, conservative lobbyists use arguments derived from Hardin’s political tract to explain away poverty on First Nations’ reserves, and to argue for further dismantling of indigenous communities. A study published by the influential Fraser Institute urges privatization of reserve land:

“[T]hese large amounts of land, with their attendant natural resources, will never yield their maximum benefit to Canada’s native people as long as they are held as collective property subject to political management. … collective property is the path of poverty, and private property is the path of prosperity.” (Fraser 2002: 16-17)

This isn’t just right-wing posturing. Canada’s federal government, which has refused to sign the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, announced in 2007 that it will “develop approaches to support the development of individual property ownership on reserves,” and created a $300 million fund to do just that.

In Hardin’s world, poverty has nothing to do with centuries of racism, colonialism and exploitation: poverty is inevitable and natural in all times and places, the product of immutable human nature. The poor bring it on themselves by having too many babies and clinging to self-destructive collectivism.

The tragedy of the commons is a useful political myth — a scientific-sounding way of saying that there is no alternative to the dominant world order.

Stripped of excess verbiage, Hardin’s essay asserted, without proof, that human beings are helpless prisoners of biology and the market. Unless restrained, we will inevitably destroy our communities and environment for a few extra pennies of profit. There is nothing we can do to make the world better or more just.

In 1844 Friedrich Engels described a similar argument as a “repulsive blasphemy against man and nature.” Those words apply with full force to the myth of the tragedy of the commons.

Ian Angus is editor of Climate and Capitalism and an associate editor of Socialist Voice
(Originally published in Socialist Voice, August 24, 2008)
Update: See also A reply to criticisms and questions about this article

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Works cited in this article

Appell, G. N. 1993. “Hardin’s Myth of the Commons: The Tragedy of Conceptual Confusions.” http://tinyurl.com/5knwou

Boal, Iain. 2007. “Interview: Specters of Malthus: Scarcity, Poverty, Apocalypse.”

Counterpunch,September 11, 2007. http://tinyurl.com/5vepm5

Bromley, Daniel W. and Cernea Michael M. 1989. “The Management of Common Property Natural Resources: Some Conceptual and Operational Fallacies.” World Bank Discussion Paper. http://tinyurl.com/5853qn

Cox, Susan Jane Buck. 1985, “No Tragedy on the Commons.” Environmental Ethics 7. http://tinyurl.com/5bys8h

Engels, Friedrich. 1892. “The Mark.” http://tinyurl.com/6e58e7

Engels, Friedrich. 1844. Outlines of a Critique of Political Economy. http://tinyurl.com/5p24t5
Fraser Institute. 2002. Individual Property Rights on Canadian Indian Reserves. http://tinyurl.com/5pjfjj

Hardin, Garrett. 1966. Biology: Its Principles and Implications. Second edition. San Francisco. W.H. Freeman & Co.

Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” http://tinyurl.com/o827
中文版:公地的悲劇 http://activistseducation.blogspot.com/2008/11/blog-post.html

Marx, Karl. [1867] 1998. Marx Engels Collected Works Vol. 37 (Capital, Vol. 3). New York: International Publishers

Neeson, J.M. 1993. Commoners: Common Right, Enclosure and Social Change in England, 1700-1820. Cambridge University Press.